Liliane est au lycée: Est-il indispensable d’être cultivé ? (Antidote) (French Edition)

La Vie N°3667

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The consequence was the development, in the course of the 20th Century, of two often opposing managerial policies and cultures, one inwards looking, aiming at modernization and professionalization of internal museum functions, the other focusing on closing the relationship of museology and its natural and social environment. The first was essentially administrative and scholar-based, and has thrived with the adoption of a culture of mass consumption and multiplied its functions according to an ever-dominant division of labour.

The second is proactive and externally driven, a policy and managerial culture aiming at the management of processes and resources, and at the identifications and development of the living cultures existing in a society. Furthermore, his privileged positions in the culture of its time made him a significant witness, not just of the debate about museums, but of 20th century French cultural life. Unless otherwise stated or referenced, all the translations are those of the author.

Structure of the Thesis. Nature of Popular Culture. Modes of documentation andAcquisition of a Museological programme. Museographical programme in an Ecomuseum. The use of a three year temporary exhibitions programme. Strands of New Museologies. Loisirs Musicaux de la Jeunesse MA: Recherche Cooperative sur Programme. Scenes of Night Life as depicted in the revue Documents George Bataille and Carl Einstein The Pre-Colombian Exhibition Members of the Dakar-Djibouti The Viscountess de Noaille, Artur Hazelius Swedish scholar and folklorist. Enquiry on the Modernization and Reform of public galleries, Territorial Museologies and tourism.

Of the newer generation of French museologists I must give my most warm thanks to Jean-Michel Tobelem. I thank also many members, staff and students, present and past, of the Department of Arts now Cultural Policy and Management of City University, London.

Their views and cultural discourses have in different measures influenced some of the approaches held in his thesis. Traditional modes of collecting, displaying and documenting have being modernized and professional guidelines on outreach and cooperation have given to museums a new life.

As such, museums have not only multiplied and diversified, but the very concept of museology has taken an epistemological dimension that goes beyond the science or skill of acquiring, keeping and displaying collections. A view on the present day museum scene shows us the extraordinary growth of museological activity. The opportunity to experience the symbolic significance of the material traces left by natural and human activity is not reduced to one specific museology but through a palimpsest of past and present museologies, reflecting alternative world views, modes of classification and variety of displays.

Some originated centuries ago and their collections, once thought to be terminally ill, have been reinterpreted according to contemporary cultural perceptions. It can be also be experienced in zoos, aquariums, arboretums, botanical gardens and natural reserves. Art and technology can be experienced not only through aesthetic and scientific masterpieces, but as a living experience in artist workshops, galleries, discovery centres and industrial factories.

Streets, boulevards, buildings, harbours and the homes of great names and celebrities are being restored as noble symbols of the past. The vernacular and the object of everyday life have achieved the status of objects of symbolic significance. Skills and technologies involved in the crafts and trades are demonstrated to the public. Football clubs, religious sects and manufacturing business have their own museum of identity and even fictional characters such as Tintin and Sherlock Homes have found their way into successful museums.

Though the expansion of museological activity is a multinational and interconnected phenomenon, its motivations and chronology differ depending on national circunstances.

See a Problem?

In the 19th century the Scandinavian countries and Germany adopted local history and the material culture of everyday life as signs of national identity. Objects of daily life had no place in the pantheon of museum objects. This research intends to explore how a museology of everyday life found its way into the French Republican enlightenment conception of culture.

According to Varine, a museum should only exist as long as the population that created it survives: It is perhaps the distinction made in museological forums between museology and museums that gives a theoretical perspective to these views. Every way of life, philosophy or scientific discipline has the potential to generate a specific museology.

Each museology is a process by which a group or a community becomes aware through its material culture of the historical significance of its natural and cultural environment. It is initially a project of research and acquisition based on a particular objectbased relation to historical reality. The end products are museums with their administrative culture and symbolic references that tend to be inadequate for later generations or modes of thinking.

They become unsustainable, and their dissolution can only be prevented by private or state sponsoring, or by a policy of reinterpretation of collections supported by the state-of-the-art critical museology. The relevance of this distinction between museology and museums for the present thesis is that it allows setting apart the process of creation of a museological project from the managerial culture prevalent in the museum sector. Why such a group or community starts to be interested in particular types of artefacts, for what purpose, according to which interpretative paradigm or process of cultural transmission.

Thus the discovery of Greek and Roman antiquities in the Renaissance triggered the infatuation with Greek and Roman classic texts. This nostalgic search of the past generated a living scholar culture that favoured the search for the golden origins through the translation of Greek and Latin texts and the unearthing of material remains of the Classical period. The Renaissance man, provided with new philosophical ideas and attitudes, found in the display of collections a true archaeology of knowledge.

Objects were interpreted according to the Renaissance idea that the microcosm mirrored the macroscosm in a cascade of neoplatonic esoteric correspondences. When the neo-classical revival lost its attraction these collections and their buildings became the depositories of masterpieces of the past. The discovery by European explorers of far-off lands prompted the curiosity for the odd and the different. The ideals of the French Revolution produced a different museology by reinterpreting and expanding the existing collections for the sake of the shaping of a new citizenship Hooper-Greenhill, ; Boylan, , As part of the system of Fine Arts, these were opened to the general public for education and as symbols of excellence and national prestige Sherman, Inspired by the displays of International World and Trade Exhibitions, it produced an open-air museology that made the rural vernacular prestigious witnesses of National Heritage.

The approval by the American Congress of the Yellowstone Park Act in has been considered as the foundational document of the idea of the National Park. With the expansion of roads, railways, and public and private transport, this museology with its recreation areas, scenic rivers, national lakeshores, parkways and urban preserves triggered the early development of mass tourism management Runte, This diversification of collections led eventually to the multiplication of local museological practices by which every activity existing in a territory could be given museographical expression.

I have approached this concept as a modernist project of cultural change that encapsulates many of the transformations and challenges that museology has undergone in the last hundred years. A polymath accomplished as a musician, antiquarian, cultural activist, anthropologist and folklore specialist, he brought to museology the unlikely convergence of artists, collectors, dealers and antiquarians, aristocrats, philosophers, academics, social researchers and avant-garde experimentation.

As the first Director of the UNESCO-based International Council of Museums ICOM from to his official retirement in , he not only represented the concerns of museum professionals and undertook the modernization of museums according to the standards of its day, but also had a leading influence on the development of museum theory and practice. The crucial debates of the inter-war years on the nature of national identity in a divided France, and their influence on the world of international exhibitions, have been treated by Herman Lebovic in his True France: Finally, an interpretation of the notion of Ecomuseums has been treated from an Anglo-Saxon perspective by Peter Davis in his Ecomuseums: Case Studies in Canada, the United States and Mexico Hauenschild, , based on her PhD study in which she shed some light on some of the too often glossed-over shortcomings in the policy, organization and management of the first generation of Ecomuseums.

Equally, or even more important, some of his associates, students and participants in his many projects, seminars and conferences were still available. At an early stage in my research I also met Hugues de Varine Bohan b. From the beginning he made me. He advised me to visit, amongst others, the Cultural Parks of the Maestrazgo in the Autonomous Community of Aragon, Spain, and the Ecomuseum of Matadouro in Rio de Janeiro, which he thought at the time to be two good examples of his concept of a community museology Varine, His continuing support and advice following the initial contact has been extremely valuable.

It is presented as part of the ideology of primitivism understood as a politically driven response aiming at changing the perception of French citizens to their natural, geographical and historical heritage. Finally this research tries to evaluate to what extent these cultural changes have transformed the nature of museology in that country.

I understand by epistemological structure the set of ideas, beliefs, theories, memories and visual associations by which individuals and societies make sense of their social and natural environment. On a more functional level, it implies the set of skills, knowhow, accepted practices, technologies and institutions by which individuals make the social and material environment a sense of place. This process of translation consists of adding two apparently different interests to one single course of action. The people recruited bring their own ideas, expectations and resources.

Then comes a phase of reinterpretation of objectives translation in which everyone agrees to abandon for a time their initial interest for the sake of allowing a manoeuvring space for the development of objectives. This process must be understood as a managerial technique or skill, open to chance and circumstances, depending on the existence of widely shared collective concerns, rather than the product of predefined planning. As such, it can be considered as a collective cultural biography in which ideas and motivations are widely shared beyond personal differences and individual formulations.

Concerns such as the deterioration of community bonds, the belief in the beneficial effects of the collective and the unconscious or the faith in the power of scientific knowledge, were shared by artist, social scientist, sociologist, historian and politician of every persuasion. These concerns were however articulated through ideas belonging to specific disciplines which did not always have the same meaning. Finally, the interest for objects that arguably started in artistic avant-garde was reinforced with the importance given to material culture by the Scandinavian and German folklorist, the Institute of Ethnology of Paris Mauss and the historical sciences favoured by Lucien Febre Febvre and Max Bloch.

All these elements did not come together naturally but were re-enacted in fierce ideological battles and conflicts of personality. While the critical discourse is analytical, the phenomenological approach is descriptive before new cultural perceptions generate a critical perspective.

I have also kept the language I found in archive documents to show the often existing gap between new ideas and the conscious or unconscious cultural prejudices embedded in the language. This interaction is particularly enlightening when the dynamics of the cultural discourse is re-enacted in intellectual circles considered representative of the most radical progressive thinking. The descriptive approach is also pertinent due to the amount of misunderstanding existing on open wall museology in general and the very notion of the Ecomuseum in particular.

However, the Ecomuseums idea seems to have being understood either as Scandinavian open-air museums in situ or as a revolutionary institution threatening the notion of museums. The very notion of open wall museology seems to be foreign not only to the general public but to professionals of the cultural sector. According to this ideology, whatever their respective achievements, cultures are not morally and intellectually interchangeable. The achievements of Western Civilization in the domains of social welfare, science and technology largely surpass the greatness of past civilizations.

Empirical modes of observation were proposed to overcome what was perceived as excessive emphasis on abstract and ideological patterns of thinking. The polarity between urban and rural ways of life was given a nolstalgic revival, with renewed interest for material culture and traditional skills and technologies. In his view, every society is shaped by an a socially internal milieu inserted in its turn into an external milieu. This milieu would explain the way a group or community understands the world and the way it interacts, through technical skills and inventions, with its natural and social environment.

It is however in constant interaction with ideas and inventions produced by other societies, with which it borrows and lends new solutions. This borrowing is selective and pragmatically driven, and in traditional societies largely unconscious. The strength and vitality of a society, its ultimate success or failure, consists in finding a successful flow between the internal and the external environment.

In this framework the Management of Cultural change at institutional, national or community level depends on the interaction of ideas and perceptions existing in the internal milieu, and allowing enough permeability for a pertinent input of external borrowing. Chapter 4 describes the state-of-the-art practices he witnessed in professional international conferences in the s. Chapters 5 and 6 explore the internal milieu, the core of the philosophical, political and cultural concerns that shaped the collective mentality of the France of the Third Republic. It will only be thirty years later, with the so-called Second French Revolution and the gradual adoption of decentralized modes of State governance, that the conditions for an open wall museology in the form of Ecomuseums were created.

Beyond its cultural significance and its importance in understanding later development in cultural theory, the object-based Maussian ethnology is today a cultural curiosity. From a museological point of view, whatever the methodological or interpretative strengths or shortcomings of the research, conservation, documentation and display, the defining criteria for its sustainability are not the professional criteria of peers and critics but the available resources and its acceptance by the public or community.

When ideas and practices of interpretation lose their public resonance, new assumptions and initiatives are produced to substitute or complement them. In my view, his activities in the interwar years shed the most significant light on the background and dimensions of his museology. After his experience was put at the service of two main projects: I have considered the latter to have being well covered by Martine Segalen and by Baghli, Boylan and Herreman This thesis considers Ecomuseums of Identity an articulation of intentions and unfulfilled past projects which have their origin in the inter-war years.

I have not followed a strict chronological narrative; most chapters concentrate on the events and experiences of the s. Only chapters 9, 10 and 12 concentrate on the events after Many recommendations on modernization and professionalization, plus theories on the nature, history and development of the institutions, seem to be based on perhaps often repeated casual opinions rather than primary evidence and considered analysis, as has been pointed out by Teather , Sherman and Orosz , to give just three very different examples.

The result can be a repetitious and contradictory literature, presented by practitioners and commentators as state of-the-art thinking and aiming at solving the chronic managerial shortcomings of these institutions, but in fact lacking proper rigour and critical judgement. Sherman distinguished three categories of opinions: Though providing essential information about certain signposts of museum development, these sources leave unexamined its connection to larger issues.

Orosz, in his research on the trends of American museology, seems to reach similar conclusions: There is little doubt that similar criticisms could be made of other accounts and assumptions about the history of museums and museology in other parts of the world. Much of the professional literature published often amounts to no more than a declaration of intentions and recommendations. Often the meaning of terms such as education, development or staff training mean different things to different people: According to the originators of the nouvelle museologie, amongst its objectives was to transform an academic-centred and administrative culture into a managerial culture in which concern with living processes takes priority over objects and established institutions.

How can the insertion of museums into their society or community be improved? How can the epistemological and managerial gap existing between professionals and the population be overcome? The literature consulted depicted him as a staunch Republican with deep respect for the culture of the aristocracy, a man who dedicated the bulk of his professional years to modernization of museums, although he spent all his life thinking how museology could be conceived without museums. To answer that question I suggest dividing them into two types: Both were politically motivated programmes for cultural change that intended to re-direct the approach of French citizens to their natural and cultural environment.

Ory highlighted the importance of the International Museum Office IMO and the central role that museology took in these years as part of this programme. The first was an exercise intended to symbolically assimilate the varieties of people and cultures of the French Colonial Empire as an essential part of the identity and mission of France.

He would do so through his career. Some of the above sources are today important research landmarks of social and cultural history of the France of the Third Republic. Their importance in the production of the present thesis, beyond the profusion of information they supplied, is that they illustrated the collective nature of the programme of cultural change put in place by successive governments, and the role of cultural activists in a heavily regulated society.

Thus, in order of publication: As an architect by profession, GonzalezLlovera highlights the administrative difficulties architects and by extension any professional working for the public sector might encounter in the implementation of their ideas and projects. Thus the lack of transparency and accountability of French administration amounted, according to the author, to official irresponsibility in matters of architecture of public museums.

Which experiences were significant to his future career? What role did Surrealism play? How did this relationship influence the ATP? Chapter 11 draws the general lines of his Ecomuseum concept and discusses its present day relevance. Popular culture is understood in this thesis not only as a modernized object-based science of folklore, but as a cultural theory shaped by an early understanding of the mechanism of creation and transmission of the growing culture of mass consumption. The importance this literature has taken in recent years, and its influence in the genesis of present day cultural studies, justified this review.

In connection to the Jamin-Clifford debate on the relations between ethnology and surrealism in the inter-war years Jamin, , I agree with Gorgus and Gonzalez-Llovera on the interpretation held by James Clifford Clifford, ; Rubin, ; Gonzalez-Llovera, ; Gorgus, Lebovic, ; Peer, ; Gonzalez-Llovera, ; Segalen, She gave special focus to the notion of museological programmes and to principles of research and display, described and analysed in details his temporary exhibitions and narrated the problems and successes the ATP had to undergo through the years of its existence.

She also presented a documented critique of the methodological shortcomings and the rapid process of obsolescence his ideas and policies underwent. As such, this thesis does not intend to present major changes on the critical diagnosis preserved in the above literature. They implicitly assumed a museology aimed at creating permanent institutions, rather than a museology of processes by which a community or society become aware of its natural and cultural heritage. The first part is essentially descriptive, in accordance with the phenomenological discourse.

Structure of the Thesis: The interaction between the external international milieu and internal cultural concerns and expectations generated a project of modernization and cultural changes and a museology without walls. The so-called Second French Revolution, changes in the trends of anthropological research and the administration of the state. The proliferation of the Patrimony Associations led to the creation of a Museology of Identity and a Museology of Development. To do so, this chapter presents two apparently confronted theories on the nature and modes of transmission of popular culture.

It assumed as a theoretical hypothesis the existence of homogeneous societies with a culture and technology shaped by geography, climate, biological inheritance and cultural transmission. On the other, using philosophical language and cultural translations of the artistic avant garde, he assumed popular culture as a process of continuous interaction in a heterogeneous social and cultural environment.

These two assumptions are purely theoretical and could represent the two poles between which all forms of human identity fluctuate; both extremes are given an interpretation through the cultural anthropogenesis of Leroi-Gourhan. It shows his first direct experience of the international museum world in which he often found confirmation of some of his personal reflections, and identified possible solutions pertinent to France. Thus, together with the discovery of museography of open-air museums in Scandinavian countries, he appreciated the priority given to material culture in the historical identity of these nations.

In Germany, with its strong federal tradition, he valued the museography of local museums and living strength of the Heimat by which local heritage and history was promoted and embellished by the local population. In the same way, the museography and collective enthusiasm that transformed museums in the Soviet Union as instruments of popular education confirmed his practice of using museological display as a tool for change.

This exhibition was widely perceived in its time as a state-of-the-art presentation of the various practices that, in different part of the world, were implementing some of the recommendations given in various international forums and journals. It implied an object-based anthropology of culture as articulated by the new human sciences of human geography, sociology and ethnology. It is presented as a response to the international museographical concerns described in chapter 4 and 5, and the assumptions of the Durkheimian School of Sociology as analysed in chapter 6.

A growing cultural malaise and important socio-political changes led to a strong criticism of the nature of thirty years of museum modernization. It gathers the arguments presented by commentators and museum professionals in journals and reviews, and in the long list of enquiries, workshops and reports that preceded the reorganization and dismantling of his most celebrated projects.

His near-legendary life spread over such a wide range of fields and activities that the sources for any biography are fragmented across a multitude of anecdotes, spread through personal letters, interviews, recollections, memoirs, and in many obituaries and other homages scattered through periodicals, journals, reviews and archives.

Those who knew him all described him in terms similar to those of Pascal Ory as a person with great intelligence and charm, a man of highly refined aesthetic sensibility, a catalogue of contradictions, an entrepreneur of genius and the most fascinating witness of his time. His personality led him, through chance and circumstances, to bring to the museum world the interests, aspirations and sensibilities widely shared by ethnologists, dealers, collectors, art critics and museum curators.

He was above all the embodiment of the 20th century French cultural militant, and as such is today recognized as a significant figure in the intellectual and cultural history of France, far beyond his professional work in museums and museology. Le Chat Noir has often being considered part of the history of the art movements of our times Mauclair, , p. It was for some decades the centre of Bohemian Paris and a haunt of leading chansonniers, writers and others, including for example the poets and writers Georges Auriol and Paul Dival, and the composer Claude Debussy.

Its novelty and extraordinary popularity, the mystique with which it was invested, and the legend that grew up about it, launched a fashion which before long extended to the whole of Europe, Segel, If his religious vocation was temporary, his musical disposition lasted all his life. The cries and voices of street vendors, mendicants and tradesman he heard as a child in rue Lepic, and on the slopes of Montmartre, became one of his permanent memories.

This was still a Montmartre in which streets were living entities, with many popular characters living in the steep narrow streets: Koechlin taught the equality of all kinds of music, reconciling classical music, with its ancient, medieval and renaissance traditions and techniques, with the new modernist and postmodernist musical languages of modality, tonality, polytonality and atonality. He also composed an operetta named Loup-florentain with Tristan Bernard, the manuscript of which is now lost: However, these were not published under his name and are largely untraceable.

Archer-Straw, , Martin, ; Gonzalez-Llovera, As we we shall see, he used his understanding of American Jazz as a metaphor to understand the formation of popular culture. Clement Doucet registered it in his name during the war. In a pleasant and comfortable theatre, all those of us who despise European film directors and the avant-garde little chapels will be able to see and listen to excellent talkies, for the greatest pleasure of my expatriate friends as well as for my own.

Black music and dance associated with African cultures became, for a whole generation, a shared cultural fantasy that reversed the usual racist polarites. The American diet is more wholesome. Between and he participated in large scale ethnographical missions, including the Dakar-Djibouti Mission which started his lifelong association with the Dogon. Griaule pioneered the use of aerial photography and put in practice the teamwork recording of ethnographical collection Griaule, ; His study on Dogon masks remains one of the fundamental works on the topic.

The evolution from a purely descriptive study of the Dogon masks to an increasingly complex symbolic interpretation has been treated by Doquet, His interpretation of a Dogon Cosmology has being severely criticized by Anglo-Saxon anthropology Lettens, ; Van Beek, ; Clifford, b, c. As a child I exhibited small examples in the shelves of my room.

As a teenager my mind was divided between two societies: Without losing their commercial sense, dealers such as Kahnweiller, Rosenberg, Paul Guillaume, Charles Ratton, Vignier, David-Weil and Wilderstein all considered themselves part of the painting movements they contributed to discovering. Malcom Gee, in his study of art market in the Paris of this period, has given us a good description of the background and attitudes to business of the activist involved in modern art. At one extreme were men who came directly from the financial and commercial background, and who tended to apply its principles as directly as possible to painting.

Mouradian and Van Leer, who came from the cotton trade and opened a gallery in Rue de la Seine in , are representative of this category. These publications are today being seen as essential for a critical re-evaluation of the creation, promotion and dissemination of avant-garde ideas and attitudes of the period. In its effort to break the hierarchy between high art and crafts and everyday objects, the Cahiers d Art regularly published the most recent archaeological discoveries in sculpture, architecture, terracotta, ceramic and jewellery from the Far East, Asia Minor, Middle East, Pre-Colombian America, Africa and Oceania.

These archaelogical expressions of art were presented alongside recent work of Arp, Bauchant, Braque, Dali, Giacometti, Klee, Masson, Miro, Picasso, Roux, etc, and the latest ethnographical and folklore research and acquisition from Africa, America, Europe and Oceania. All were incorporated and displayed according to what it was believed they all had in common: This primordial creativity was the common denominator that put on the same footing superior and inferior cultural forms and knowledge, breaking the distinctions between popular and higher cultures.

Documents appeared under the patronage of the collector Georges Wildenstein with the writer Georges Bataille as editor in chief and myself to do the work. This enjoyed the support of a great man: Leiris, ; Lecoq, The originality of Documents was first pointed out by James Clifford in his groundbreaking On ethnological surrealism , published for the French public as Ethnologie, polyphonie, collage Clifford, In it, Clifford explored the relation between ethnography, literature and art in 20th century France, and put Documents at the centre of post-modern anthropological analysis.

The exhibition and catalogue was such a success that in Gradhiva reprinted in two fascimiles the complete set of Documents issued between Jamin, Finally, the exhibition Undercover Surrealism: Nephew of the famous physicist Albert Einstein, he committed suicide in to avoid Nazi persecution. Carl Einstein belongs to the tradition of Austro-Hungarian art theoreticians of the end of the 19th century, solidly formed in the Berlin reflexion about art unknown in the Paris circles.

Babelon et al, As he himself put it: If you want to make an exhibition of Pre-Colombian art you must at least know something about the matter. The latter thought the idea was bound to be a failure. He was ready to help me but I needed a financial guarantee. I then went to see my friend David David-Weil, to whom I had been for a certain time the superintendent of his state and collections. How much money do you need? With the promise of a cheque I went back to Metman, who agreed to lend the Pavilion Marsan as a venue for the exhibition. He was an influential teacher, a tireless field researcher, a productive writer, an efficient administrator, and an imaginative planner of social projects.

Museums without walls

At UNESCO he was responsible for the participation of anthropologists in many research projects around the world, aiming at translating anthropological theory and knowledge into action. The exhibition was a tremendous success amongst artists, art lovers, collectors and art dealers. He proposed a theory according to which South America was populated by settlers from Australia and Melanesia. Where did you do your thesis? I am an Americanist but I have not read your thesis.

There is no thesis, sir, I am a simple bachelier. I want a quick answer, I give you 48 hours. You must be aware that the position I am offering you is usually only offered to doctors in sciences. A position that traditionally would have been offered to a young, highly qualified specialist and researcher in a relevant academic discipline was given instead to a part-time pianist, part-time antiquarian and mostly unpaid editor, admittedly one with entrepreneurial flair.

This mission was followed by ground-breaking exhibitions which opened in quick succession: Objects brought to light by palaeontology, archaeology and ethnology were to be gradually collected, interpreted and reconstructed as historical documents and intended to act as an inspiration for the future instauration of a lost social totality Tiryakian, I contributed in the conception, organization, implementation and dissemination of the great ethnological missions… responsible for the laboratory associated to the CNRS [the French national council for scientific research].

He used motivational themes such as the promotion of folklore, leisure, tourism, or national interest and pride to recruit new sponsors and supporters. First he was cons tantly lobbing the various political groups and the different levels of public administration that might have had any influence on the approval or funding of the various phases of his projects. He also used liberally a network of friends and acquaintances to find and reinforce support in high places.

The text can today be read as significant in the merging of sensibilities of the times that contributed to the birth of 20th century ethnology in France: There were finally all the various forms of snobbery for the unusual and rare: They were all intended to be an extensive research, aiming at collecting objects of interest destined to the MET. On the night of the fight Marcel Griaule introduced world bantamweight champion and civil activist against racial discrimination Al Brown, flanked by four museum guards in uniform.

If Josephine Baker had been fully black she would have never being accepted. She was just black enough Haggerty, , p. The process of the discovery of the other was thus perceived as a gnoseological process that fills the gap existing between the unknown and the inhospitable. In this way, anthroplogist Alfred Metraux still remembered the years , , as the years in which, through art, his scientific career in ethnological field research started: The first expression of this was the awakening of interest for exotic arts, first African arts, then of pre-Colombian America.

I must say that this attitude was due to both naivety and prejudice. Thus a diversity of groups with similar concerns appeared. Their goals expressed the sentiments of a generation seeking social adhesion of a different order: The state-sponsored traditional salon and its early 20th century progressive rival salons gave way to the dealers exhibiting and promoting their own newly discovered artists on their own premises — the galerie.

They all shared the taste for discovery and innovation, and for direct patronage. The salon of the extravagant Marie Laure, described by her biographer as the result of cross-breeding a dynasty of German bankers and French aristocracy, was to become , between and , the centre of the Parisian artistic community, especially Surrealist. In his study of the art market in the s, Paris Gee explores the possible reasons why these turned towards the avant-garde, in contrast with most other members of their social group who, despite their considerable fortunes, were not known for innovation, artistic or otherwise.

With some exceptions the majority of these patrons of the avant-garde were all rebelling against their family background. In the case of Beaumont and the Noailles, their homosexuality was also an important link to others within the avant-garde artistic world of the day. On the other hand, their attitude towards painting derived from their aristocratic outlook. Nina Gorgous talks of his intellectual confusion salade intellectuelle in assessing the differences between National-Socialism and Communist Parties.

In his first visit to Berlin he was invited equally to communist meetings and to Nazi rallies and celebrations, and both were apparently praised by him with equal enthusiasm. In this sense and with hindsight there is no wonder he provoked very contradictory impressions on people with committed political party affiliations. From his position of director of the Directorate of Arts et Traditions Populaires, he managed to maintain the so-called chantier intellectuel intellectual work based at the Museum by implementing during the war ethnographical missions on rural architecture and material culture.

In practice, the chantiers also became a cover for intellectuals, young graduates and members of the Resistance, and as a means to prevent them from being arrested or sent to Germany to contribute to the war effort. After the war in these and all the other heroes of the Resistance were honoured and remembered at the Palais Chaillot itself, where the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of the Rights of Man.

It is recorded that it was she who first introduced the typewriter to the Museum, put in place the accession and registration forms and procedures for new collections and photographic material, diligently cleaned and restored every object in the museum and assisted her brother in the organization of temporary exbibitions. Though the mission aimed at a better knowledge of local popular beliefs and technology for the purpose of improving colonial administration, the object-based twist given by Mauss to ethnology meant there was also a focus on the acquisition of objects as well.

Varagnac soon left the museum to head an archaeological project of his own. The inhabitants in the mountains were very loyal to her, and whenever they visited Paris came to see her brother to enquire about her. In the political upheavals of the s she might be seen in the street carrying a gun and a brandishing a sword, and even succeeded to be sent to the Spanish Civil War in After periods of emotional exaltation came moments of depression.

The day her mother died, her behaviour became volatile and she directed her anger at her brother. One day she persecuted him with a pair of scissors. By object-based ethnological research was regarded by Malraux and others as discredited and new approaches to anthropological research had become established as part of university curricula.

The approval of the Ministry of Higher Education and Research to build substantial accommodation above the new museum for the ethnological and anthropological research programmes and staff, or move the association of the CNRS National Council of Scientific Research seems to have been viewed by Malraux as an abuse of national resources.

If you want to make a successful museum you must do what you used to do: Sharing the literary ambitions of many members of his generation, Malraux soon joined the Parisian artistic and literary avant-gardes.

In he was appointed Minister of Cultural Affairs by General De Gaulle, and he re-launched the idea of Maisons de la culture as part of the policy of cultural decentralization of the Vth Republic. They would contribute to promoting and implementing a global museum modernization along the lines suggested by Professional Associations of Museums and the guidelines set by the Internatio nal Museum Office in the revue Mouseion in the years The tasks of inventorying museum objects, the creation of national museums directory, and the encouragement of loans and international exchanges became a priority, as well as issues of conservation and restoration of cultural property ICCROM and its protection in case of armed conflicts.

Considerations on the nature of the public and advances in audio-visual technologies transformed the nature and practice of museums. This Committee soon became an international think tank that, through the years, brought together, in annual meetings, conferences, workshops, exhibitions, publications and resolutions, many of the proactive actors of the museum world.

They attempted to articulate some theoretical bases on the nature, purpose and place in society of the new science of museology, with the further aim of contributing to defining the profile, training and background of museum professionals ICTOP. As we shall see, in spite of the admiration his displays still produced in professional museum circles, the Art and Popular Traditions of France never totally recovered from its association to the Regime of Vichy.

It would be the prestige achieved in his international career that would bring him back to the attention of the French public in the later s. As we shall see, though acclaimed by many, this view was not shared by many of his collaborators, particularly Hugues de Varine. His organizational plans lay down with an almost obsessional precision, revealed an increasingly morbid fixation on details to the point of making any normal functioning impossible.

His personality had a direct incidence on his museology, and is particularly relevant in his conception of popular culture. The following points are explored: Mechanism of formation and transmission of popular culture as elaborated by the artistic avant-garde. Traditional way of life and the nature of folklore as perceived in conservative literature. Folkore as promotion of commercial tourism: Traditionally, folklore was understood as the compound of popular beliefs and practices belonging to a pre -Enlightenment ordering of the world, and dismissed as part of the errors and confusions that characterized the superstitious understanding of reality.

Despite this widely held view, each nation in Europe tended to adopt radically different attitudes towards the importance and function of folklore within culture and the wider society. The Romantic tradition of Germanic and Scandinavian countries placed folklore at the centre of national identity, whereas the French Jacobin tradition saw old popular wisdom and local languages as a serious threat to national unity and its ideals of an enlightened national citizenship Deloche and Leniaud, The growing reaction against Cartesian abstraction and rationality Rearick, ; Thiesse, , the Maussian search of elementary structures and the creation of an ethnological discourse put in place by the primitivist ideology were all going to give to the romantic tradition a new perspective.

There was folklore in Europe, in China and India, where advanced knowledge and popular belief coexisted. Authors such as Paul Saintyves , Paul Sebillot , Arnold van Gennep and Paul Delarue had all made their life mission to record different aspects of the old folklore of France. This old wisdom, according to Varagnac, was inevitably bound to disappear with the appearance of industrialization and the expansion of scientific knowledge. According to this view, folklore was not the cultural life of pre-industrial and pre-enlightened rural population, but the human way of apprehending the world, a culture shaped by the merging of the rational and irrational beliefs, and the conscious and unconscious expectation existing in any way of life.

The perception of the world of the rural peasant, the factory worker, or the most educated sectors of the population is, he argued, always shaped to different degrees by rational activities, unproven belief, and not yet realized expectations. Every world view and practice, whether held by individuals, communities or institutions, is but a blend of old and new, outdated and innovative elements. It was time, according to Bataille, to substitute the game of transposition and metaphor into an epistemology of the formless. Against the Socratic tradition, Bataille vindicated the Presocratic tradition of Heraclitus, which saw the relations with the world in terms of a contextual perception and understanding.

Elaborating on this distinction between a symbolic world created by reference to a constructed theoretical thinking and a world managed according to contextual thinking, Foucault talked of the space of utopias and the space of heterotopias Foucault, These spaces tend to have simplified modes of management and a reductive and homogeneous vision of society.

In contrast, the heterotopias are real spaces: This new science would produce modes of management that would take into account the real concerns and realities existing in a heterogeneous society. Whilst in their original context, objects are part of a coherent set which give them functional relevance and organic meaning when moved: The logic works like a kaleidoscope, an instrument that also contains bits and pieces by means of which structural patterns are realized.

Dance, music and improvisation became a true expression of primordial activity and a framework to interpret artefacts devoid of their former function. In this sense we could say that with music the idea of signified is not valid any more. Any musical expression has in its very nature the ability to free itself from its o riginal. I do not believe in inspiration: Like the Cubists, he borrowed and inserted pieces of ready-made reality in his plastic imagination, or took that reality as a starting point for something different.

The overall discourse of texts and images was intended to be a destructive experience that would tear the individual out of himself and induce a creative process of reconstruction. It was not like that in former times. Contrary to the view that folklore was the culture of the pre-industrial, popular mind, he drew from the experience of the USA, where the modern phenomenon of folklore was thriving in the form of jazz: It uses and revolutionizes instruments as varied as the archaic maraca, the classical trumpet and violin, and as recent as the piano and the saxophone.

It recruits its best composer among white composers, often Jews from central Europe such as Gershwin, and its best performers amongst blacks. An outcome both of the most evolved capitalism and of primitivism, it is promoted by the former through publications, theatre, sound recording, radio and the cinema and it feeds on the latter by using the forces of the unconscions. Jazz is both loyal to tradition and subject to fashion. Two decades later, when asked about the effects of the mass popularization of foreign songs, such as the music of Bob Dylan and Joan Baez, he warned against the temptation of falling in a narrow cultural protectionism: It is the same with music.

Jazz is a movement that stems at the same time from traditional Europe, archaic Africa and Indian- American. The whites contributed with their melodic system, their harmony and rhythm, from their side the blacks and Indians brought the extraordinary vitality of their percussion and their superior sense of rhythm. It is likewise that in New Orleans in the heart of Louisiana, this music was introduced in the night clubs.

Commercialization, development of the disc, the radio and television has given to the phenomenon giant dimensions. What is important is that this art survives, that it is associated to dance, that it induces anyone who hear it to move and sing. This music has conquered the youth of the world. The same phenomenon can be witnessed in other parts of France: In contrast with Boas and the American cultural anthropologists of the same generation, French 20th century ethnologists saw in the material expression of human activity the best documents for the understanding of the nature of man.

In them he comes in close contact with objects: He develops a keen sense of the concrete through the classification, identification and analysis of the objects in the various collections.

Through objects he establishes indirect contact with the native environment: Under the direction of Christian Zervos and E. Teriades , Hans Muhlestein was asked to contribute with a series of articles that gave cosmogonical dimension to the creative impulse. Where were its sources to be found beyond its historical manifestations? According to a number of paleo-anthropological hypotheses, the creation of art and religion was the product of a 29 Hans Muhlestein draws from a variety of philosophical and theosophical authors such as Simmel, Bergson, Scheller and Nietzsche; cosmogony of the Austrian Engineer and Astronomer Hans Horbiger and the lunar astronomer Philipp Flauth; the African explorer Leo Froebenius, the pre-historian l Abbe Breuil and the German paleontologist Edgar Daque, supporter of a pre-diluvian humanity.

See Cahiers d Arts, , nos 2,3,5,6. However there are as many birth places of jazz as existing countries; it appears whenever a minority group becomes creative under an hegemonic culture. These cultures are evolutive in time and variable in space. They are the defensive and offensive weapons of social identity.

They are the eternal survivors, the product of untraceable and uncountable love encounters, the Darwinist of the musical world, cruel devourers of close cousins and distant relatives. Everywhere, jazz is the outcome of the mixing of the genes of the traveller with the genes of the resident. These casual marriages, made of love, leave behind beautiful and strong children that will, in their turn, mix and multiply and create new species.

Jazz is a music asking for participation of action and thinking, springing from the deepest layer of our being, they are the artery and the blood of the physical and cultural body…the music of life. If freely performed it offers anyone who understands it a taste of creativity. In spite of being continuously broadcasted by a increasingly sophisticated media it never loses its soul.

Man does not descend from monkey, it is the monkeys that are a degenerated descent of the form of man! The ideology of primitivism as interpreted by the artistic avant-gardes believed that this so-called cultural atavism was still active today, not as a dark force but as a refreshing primordial a ctivity in the achievements of contemporary artist and scientist. The most solid elements are at the base, the less significant and most transitory appear in the surface. At the top is the day-to-day historical life, history subjected to contingency of events. Under that surface, according to Roupnell, evolves quieter forces, forces that unite men, forces that shape the framework of societies, shape their structures and regulate their functions.

ISSN Principaux actionnaires: Odile Tessier, assistante Groupe La Vie-Le Monde: Il est temps de le faire, me semble-t-il. Cela fut longtemps mon point de vue. Ici, on leur fait voir autre chose. Si vous ne le souhaitez pas, vous pouvez cocher la case ci-jointe. Libre participation aux frais. Nous nous permettons cependant de sou- lever une question importante.

Sans compter les supporteurs de foot. Accepterquelemonde tourne sans nous quelques instants. Ce qui est pur est aussi simple. Elles sont tout aussi bonnes, et utiles. Toutcommepouvonsnous passer de religion, mais pas de vie spiri- tuelle. Suzuki, le Vietnamien Thich Nhat Hanh. Je cherchais de nouveaux exercices: Mais ils font partie de la pastorale. Les2 habitants de Bonnelles non plus. Ilsviennentvolontiers prier en silence dans notre chapelle.

Ils pour- ront aussi chercher du travail. Il a souffert le martyr pendant dix jours. Et parfois, les nouvelles ne sont pas bonnes. Les besoins sont immenses. Et ce serait encore le cas. Depuis , le PS a perdu un tiers de ses militants. Ils seraient 90 , au plus bas depuis Alors une mobilisation populaire a vu le jour en Alors la France est malade.

Les droits humains doiventprimer. En , il a pris sa retraite de chanteur. Et que je suis devenue une ardente militante contre la peine de mort. Je leur ai dit une seule chose: Question qui taraude nos existences. Juste se mettre en voyage, en fonction de la situation de chacun: Accomplir alors tout ce qui est possible, mais rien qui ne soitimpossible.

Car Que devons- nous faire? Non, il est plastique. Oui le Royaume est proche. Tout le monde y pense. La Louve, 1, rue du Clos-Anet. Plantez une gousse de vanille. Collez le tissu au centre. Fixez avec une ficelle. Cela fait aussi son charme. Ce sont des techniques simples: Les gens ont envie de cultiver, de retrouver des gestes ancestraux. Le microjardinage fait partie de ce mouvement. Retirez le joint du couvercle.

Quelques gouttes peuvent suffire jamais plus de la hauteur de la pouzzolane. Pour les pros du tricot, de nombreux tutoriels gratuits sur www. Pourquoi ne pas impliquer vos voisins? Paris B www. Tout adulte doit se comporter en adulte: Si on les nie, on ne peut progresser. Un conseil aux parents? Reprenez aussi confiance en vous: Gratuit et sur inscription: Celivrechevalettrou- vera place dans la cuisine, par exemple. Oberkampf, les toiles de Jouy: Ilsfascinent car ils racontent une histoire.

On en prend plein la vue. Leurs motssontdessabresquineratent jamais leur cible. Ah la bourgeoisie colonialiste! Atelier de Jean Bourdichon, vers Mais un attentat rebat les cartes. Guszti Szomjas, vieillard nostal- gique, veut retrouver sa jeunesse. Kendji Girac sera sur le plateau pour chanter Les Yeux de la mama. Avec Ian Somerhalder, Brian Dennehy. Avec la participation de: Avec Jake Gyllenhaal, Bill Paxton.

Made in USA 0. Castres Fra - Sale Sharks Ang. Poule 2, en direct. Avec Lisa Martino, Lysiane Meis.

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