Erdbeermund: Roman (German Edition)

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Product details File Size: January 1, Sold by: Share your thoughts with other customers. Write a customer review. Stress is also used to distinguish between words and phrases, so that a compound word receives a single stress unit, but the corresponding phrase has two: In terms of rhythm , English is generally described as a stress-timed language, meaning that the amount of time between stressed syllables tends to be equal.

Stressed syllables are pronounced longer, but unstressed syllables syllables between stresses are shortened. Vowels in unstressed syllables are shortened as well, and vowel shortening causes changes in vowel quality: Varieties of English vary the most in pronunciation of vowels. Countries such as Canada , Australia , Ireland , New Zealand and South Africa have their own standard varieties which are less often used as standards for education internationally.

Some differences between the various dialects are shown in the table "Varieties of Standard English and their features". English has undergone many historical sound changes , some of them affecting all varieties, and others affecting only a few. Most standard varieties are affected by the Great Vowel Shift , which changed the pronunciation of long vowels, but a few dialects have slightly different results. In North America, a number of chain shifts such as the Northern Cities Vowel Shift and Canadian Shift have produced very different vowel landscapes in some regional accents.

Some dialects have fewer or more consonant phonemes and phones than the standard varieties. The table "Dialects and open vowels" shows this variation with lexical sets in which these sounds occur. As is typical of an Indo-European language, English follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment. Unlike other Indo-European languages though, English has largely abandoned the inflectional case system in favor of analytic constructions.

Only the personal pronouns retain morphological case more strongly than any other word class. English distinguishes at least seven major word classes: Some analyses add pronouns as a class separate from nouns, and subdivide conjunctions into subordinators and coordinators, and add the class of interjections. Questions are marked by do-support , wh-movement fronting of question words beginning with wh - and word order inversion with some verbs. Some traits typical of Germanic languages persist in English, such as the distinction between irregularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut i.

The seven word classes are exemplified in this sample sentence: English nouns are only inflected for number and possession. New nouns can be formed through derivation or compounding. They are semantically divided into proper nouns names and common nouns. Common nouns are in turn divided into concrete and abstract nouns, and grammatically into count nouns and mass nouns. Most count nouns are inflected for plural number through the use of the plural suffix - s , but a few nouns have irregular plural forms.

Mass nouns can only be pluralised through the use of a count noun classifier, e.

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Possession can be expressed either by the possessive enclitic - s also traditionally called a genitive suffix , or by the preposition of. Historically the -s possessive has been used for animate nouns, whereas the of possessive has been reserved for inanimate nouns. Today this distinction is less clear, and many speakers use - s also with inanimates. Orthographically the possessive -s is separated from the noun root with an apostrophe.

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Nouns can form noun phrases NPs where they are the syntactic head of the words that depend on them such as determiners, quantifiers, conjunctions or adjectives. They can also include modifiers such as adjectives e. But they can also tie together several nouns into a single long NP, using conjunctions such as and , or prepositions such as with , e. Regardless of length, an NP functions as a syntactic unit. For example, the possessive enclitic can, in cases which do not lead to ambiguity, follow the entire noun phrase, as in The President of India's wife , where the enclitic follows India and not President.

The class of determiners is used to specify the noun they precede in terms of definiteness , where the marks a definite noun and a or an an indefinite one.

Mostly, your suggestions and viewpoints must reflect in these essays.

A definite noun is assumed by the speaker to be already known by the interlocutor, whereas an indefinite noun is not specified as being previously known. Quantifiers, which include one , many , some and all , are used to specify the noun in terms of quantity or number. The noun must agree with the number of the determiner, e. Determiners are the first constituents in a noun phrase. Adjectives modify a noun by providing additional information about their referents.

In English, adjectives come before the nouns they modify and after determiners. For example, in the phrases the slender boy , and many slender girls , the adjective slender does not change form to agree with either the number or gender of the noun. Some adjectives are inflected for degree of comparison , with the positive degree unmarked, the suffix -er marking the comparative, and -est marking the superlative: Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms, such as good , better , and best. Other adjectives have comparatives formed by periphrastic constructions , with the adverb more marking the comparative, and most marking the superlative: English pronouns conserve many traits of case and gender inflection.

The subjective case corresponds to the Old English nominative case , and the objective case is used both in the sense of the previous accusative case in the role of patient, or direct object of a transitive verb , and in the sense of the Old English dative case in the role of a recipient or indirect object of a transitive verb. Possessive pronouns exist in dependent and independent forms; the dependent form functions as a determiner specifying a noun as in my chair , while the independent form can stand alone as if it were a noun e. Some dialects have introduced innovative 2nd person plural pronouns such as y'all found in Southern American English and African American Vernacular English or youse and ye found in Irish English.

Pronouns are used to refer to entities deictically or anaphorically. A deictic pronoun points to some person or object by identifying it relative to the speech situation—for example, the pronoun I identifies the speaker, and the pronoun you , the addressee.

Anaphorical pronouns such as that refer back to an entity already mentioned or assumed by the speaker to be known by the audience, for example in the sentence I already told you that. The reflexive pronouns are used when the oblique argument is identical to the subject of a phrase e. Prepositional phrases PP are phrases composed of a preposition and one or more nouns, e. Prepositions have a wide range of uses in English. They are used to describe movement, place, and other relations between different entities, but they also have many syntactic uses such as introducing complement clauses and oblique arguments of verbs.

For example, in the phrase I gave it to him , the preposition to marks the recipient, or Indirect Object of the verb to give. Traditionally words were only considered prepositions if they governed the case of the noun they preceded, for example causing the pronouns to use the objective rather than subjective form, "with her", "to me", "for us". English verbs are inflected for tense and aspect and marked for agreement with present-tense third-person singular subject. Only the copula verb to be is still inflected for agreement with the plural and first and second person subjects.

They form complex tenses, aspects, and moods.

PISA and DIPF: Role and Tasks

Auxiliary verbs differ from other verbs in that they can be followed by the negation, and in that they can occur as the first constituent in a question sentence. Most verbs have six inflectional forms. The primary forms are a plain present, a third-person singular present, and a preterite past form. The secondary forms are a plain form used for the infinitive, a gerund-participle and a past participle. The first-person present-tense form is am , the third person singular form is and the form are is used second-person singular and all three plurals. The only verb past participle is been and its gerund-participle is being.

English has two primary tenses, past preterit and non-past. The preterit is inflected by using the preterit form of the verb, which for the regular verbs includes the suffix -ed , and for the strong verbs either the suffix -t or a change in the stem vowel. The non-past form is unmarked except in the third person singular, which takes the suffix -s.

English does not have a morphologised future tense. Further aspectual distinctions are encoded by the use of auxiliary verbs, primarily have and be , which encode the contrast between a perfect and non-perfect past tense I have run vs. I was running , and compound tenses such as preterite perfect I had been running and present perfect I have been running. For the expression of mood, English uses a number of modal auxiliaries, such as can , may , will , shall and the past tense forms could , might , would , should.

There is also a subjunctive and an imperative mood, both based on the plain form of the verb i. It is important that he run every day ; imperative Run! An infinitive form, that uses the plain form of the verb and the preposition to , is used for verbal clauses that are syntactically subordinate to a finite verbal clause. Finite verbal clauses are those that are formed around a verb in the present or preterit form. In clauses with auxiliary verbs, they are the finite verbs and the main verb is treated as a subordinate clause.

For example, he has to go where only the auxiliary verb have is inflected for time and the main verb to go is in the infinitive, or in a complement clause such as I saw him leave , where the main verb is to see which is in a preterite form, and leave is in the infinitive. English also makes frequent use of constructions traditionally called phrasal verbs , verb phrases that are made up of a verb root and a preposition or particle which follows the verb. The phrase then functions as a single predicate. In terms of intonation the preposition is fused to the verb, but in writing it is written as a separate word.

Examples of phrasal verbs are to get up , to ask out , to back up , to give up , to get together , to hang out , to put up with , etc. The phrasal verb frequently has a highly idiomatic meaning that is more specialised and restricted than what can be simply extrapolated from the combination of verb and preposition complement e. Instead, they consider the construction simply to be a verb with a prepositional phrase as its syntactic complement, i. The function of adverbs is to modify the action or event described by the verb by providing additional information about the manner in which it occurs.

Many adverbs are derived from adjectives with the suffix -ly , but not all, and many speakers tend to omit the suffix in the most commonly used adverbs. For example, in the phrase the woman walked quickly the adverb quickly derived from the adjective quick describes the woman's way of walking.

Some commonly used adjectives have irregular adverbial forms, such as good which has the adverbial form well. Modern English syntax language is moderately analytic. Auxiliary verbs mark constructions such as questions, negative polarity, the passive voice and progressive aspect. English word order has moved from the Germanic verb-second V2 word order to being almost exclusively subject—verb—object SVO. In most sentences, English only marks grammatical relations through word order. The example below demonstrates how the grammatical roles of each constituent is marked only by the position relative to the verb:.

An exception is found in sentences where one of the constituents is a pronoun, in which case it is doubly marked, both by word order and by case inflection, where the subject pronoun precedes the verb and takes the subjective case form, and the object pronoun follows the verb and takes the objective case form.

The example below demonstrates this double marking in a sentence where both object and subject is represented with a third person singular masculine pronoun:. Indirect objects IO of ditransitive verbs can be placed either as the first object in a double object construction S V IO O , such as I gave Jane the book or in a prepositional phrase, such as I gave the book to Jane []. In English a sentence may be composed of one or more clauses, that may, in turn, be composed of one or more phrases e.

A clause is built around a verb and includes its constituents, such as any NPs and PPs. Within a sentence, one clause is always the main clause or matrix clause whereas other clauses are subordinate to it. Subordinate clauses may function as arguments of the verb in the main clause. For example, in the phrase I think that you are lying , the main clause is headed by the verb think , the subject is I , but the object of the phrase is the subordinate clause that you are lying.

The subordinating conjunction that shows that the clause that follows is a subordinate clause, but it is often omitted. For example, in the sentence I saw the letter that you received today , the relative clause that you received today specifies the meaning of the word letter , the object of the main clause. Relative clauses can be introduced by the pronouns who , whose , whom and which as well as by that which can also be omitted. English syntax relies on auxiliary verbs for many functions including the expression of tense, aspect, and mood.

Auxiliary verbs form main clauses, and the main verbs function as heads of a subordinate clause of the auxiliary verb. For example, in the sentence the dog did not find its bone , the clause find its bone is the complement of the negated verb did not. Subject—auxiliary inversion is used in many constructions, including focus, negation, and interrogative constructions. The verb do can be used as an auxiliary even in simple declarative sentences, where it usually serves to add emphasis, as in "I did shut the fridge. Negation is done with the adverb not , which precedes the main verb and follows an auxiliary verb.

A contracted form of not -n't can be used as an enclitic attaching to auxiliary verbs and to the copula verb to be. Just as with questions, many negative constructions require the negation to occur with do-support, thus in Modern English I don't know him is the correct answer to the question Do you know him? Passive constructions also use auxiliary verbs. A passive construction rephrases an active construction in such a way that the object of the active phrase becomes the subject of the passive phrase, and the subject of the active phrase is either omitted or demoted to a role as an oblique argument introduced in a prepositional phrase.

They are formed by using the past participle either with the auxiliary verb to be or to get , although not all varieties of English allow the use of passives with get. For example, putting the sentence she sees him into the passive becomes he is seen by her , or he gets seen by her. Both yes—no questions and wh -questions in English are mostly formed using subject—auxiliary inversion Am I going tomorrow? In most cases, interrogative words wh -words; e. For example, in the question What did you see?

When the wh -word is the subject or forms part of the subject, no inversion occurs: Who saw the cat? Prepositional phrases can also be fronted when they are the question's theme, e. To whose house did you go last night? The personal interrogative pronoun who is the only interrogative pronoun to still show inflection for case, with the variant whom serving as the objective case form, although this form may be going out of use in many contexts.

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While English is a subject-prominent language, at the discourse level it tends to use a topic-comment structure, where the known information topic precedes the new information comment. Because of the strict SVO syntax, the topic of a sentence generally has to be the grammatical subject of the sentence. In cases where the topic is not the grammatical subject of the sentence, frequently the topic is promoted to subject position through syntactic means.

One way of doing this is through a passive construction, the girl was stung by the bee. Another way is through a cleft sentence where the main clause is demoted to be a complement clause of a copula sentence with a dummy subject such as it or there , e. Through the use of these complex sentence constructions with informationally vacuous subjects, English is able to maintain both a topic-comment sentence structure and a SVO syntax. Focus constructions emphasise a particular piece of new or salient information within a sentence, generally through allocating the main sentence level stress on the focal constituent.

For example, the girl was stung by a bee emphasising it was a bee and not, for example, a wasp that stung her , or The girl was stung by a bee contrasting with another possibility, for example that it was the boy.

For example, That girl over there, she was stung by a bee , emphasises the girl by preposition, but a similar effect could be achieved by postposition, she was stung by a bee, that girl over there , where reference to the girl is established as an "afterthought". Cohesion between sentences is achieved through the use of deictic pronouns as anaphora e.

Discourse markers are often the first constituents in sentences. Discourse markers are also used for stance taking in which speakers position themselves in a specific attitude towards what is being said, for example, no way is that true! I'm hungry the marker boy expressing emphasis. While discourse markers are particularly characteristic of informal and spoken registers of English, they are also used in written and formal registers.

English is a rich language in terms of vocabulary, containing more synonyms than any other language. It is generally stated that English has around , words, or , if obsolete words are counted; this estimate is based on the last full edition of the Oxford English Dictionary from There is one count that puts the English vocabulary at about 1 million words—but that count presumably includes words such as Latin species names , scientific terminology , botanical terms , prefixed and suffixed words, jargon , foreign words of extremely limited English use, and technical acronyms.

Due to its status as an international language, English adopts foreign words quickly, and borrows vocabulary from many other sources. Early studies of English vocabulary by lexicographers , the scholars who formally study vocabulary, compile dictionaries, or both, were impeded by a lack of comprehensive data on actual vocabulary in use from good-quality linguistic corpora , [] collections of actual written texts and spoken passages.

Many statements published before the end of the 20th century about the growth of English vocabulary over time, the dates of first use of various words in English, and the sources of English vocabulary will have to be corrected as new computerised analysis of linguistic corpus data becomes available. English forms new words from existing words or roots in its vocabulary through a variety of processes.

One of the most productive processes in English is conversion, [] using a word with a different grammatical role, for example using a noun as a verb or a verb as a noun. Another productive word-formation process is nominal compounding, [13] [] producing compound words such as babysitter or ice cream or homesick. For this reason, lexicographer Philip Gove attributed many such words to the " international scientific vocabulary " ISV when compiling Webster's Third New International Dictionary Another active word-formation process in English is acronyms, [] words formed by pronouncing as a single word abbreviations of longer phrases e.

English, besides forming new words from existing words and their roots, also borrows words from other languages. This adoption of words from other languages is commonplace in many world languages, but English has been especially open to borrowing of foreign words throughout the last 1, years. But one of the consequences of long language contact between French and English in all stages of their development is that the vocabulary of English has a very high percentage of "Latinate" words derived from French, especially, and also from Latin and other Romance languages.

French words from various periods of the development of French now make up one-third of the vocabulary of English. Many of these words are part of English core vocabulary, such as egg and knife. English has also borrowed many words directly from Latin, the ancestor of the Romance languages, during all stages of its development. Latin or Greek are still highly productive sources of stems used to form vocabulary of subjects learned in higher education such as the sciences, philosophy, and mathematics.

English has formal and informal speech registers ; informal registers, including child-directed speech, tend to be made up predominantly of words of Anglo-Saxon origin, while the percentage of vocabulary that is of Latinate origin is higher in legal, scientific, and academic texts. English has a strong influence on the vocabulary of other languages.

Among varieties of English, it is especially American English that influences other languages.

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Since the ninth century, English has been written in a Latin alphabet also called Roman alphabet. Earlier Old English texts in Anglo-Saxon runes are only short inscriptions. The great majority of literary works in Old English that survive to today are written in the Roman alphabet. The spelling system, or orthography , of English is multi-layered, with elements of French, Latin, and Greek spelling on top of the native Germanic system.

These situations have prompted proposals for spelling reform in English. Although letters and speech sounds do not have a one-to-one correspondence in standard English spelling, spelling rules that take into account syllable structure, phonetic changes in derived words, and word accent are reliable for most English words. While few scholars agree with Chomsky and Halle that conventional English orthography is "near-optimal", [] there is a rationale for current English spelling patterns.

Readers of English can generally rely on the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation to be fairly regular for letters or digraphs used to spell consonant sounds. The differences in the pronunciations of the letters c and g are often signalled by the following letters in standard English spelling.

There are exceptions to these generalisations, often the result of loanwords being spelled according to the spelling patterns of their languages of origin [] or proposals by pedantic scholars in the early period of Modern English to mistakenly follow the spelling patterns of Latin for English words of Germanic origin. For the vowel sounds of the English language, however, correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are more irregular.

There are many more vowel phonemes in English than there are single vowel letters a , e , i , o , u , w , y. As a result, some " long vowels " are often indicated by combinations of letters like the oa in boat , the ow in how , and the ay in stay , or the historically based silent e as in note and cake. The consequence of this complex orthographic history is that learning to read can be challenging in English. It can take longer for school pupils to become independently fluent readers of English than of many other languages, including Italian, Spanish, and German.

English writing also includes a system of punctuation marks that is similar to those used in most alphabetic languages around the world. The purpose of punctuation is to mark meaningful grammatical relationships in sentences to aid readers in understanding a text and to indicate features important for reading a text aloud. Dialectologists identify many English dialects , which usually refer to regional varieties that differ from each other in terms of patterns of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.

The pronunciation of particular areas distinguishes dialects as separate regional accents. As the place where English first evolved, the British Isles, and particularly England, are home to the most diverse dialects. Within the United Kingdom, the Received Pronunciation RP , an educated dialect of South East England , is traditionally used as the broadcast standard and is considered the most prestigious of the British dialects. The spread of RP also known as BBC English through the media has caused many traditional dialects of rural England to recede, as youths adopt the traits of the prestige variety instead of traits from local dialects.

At the time of the Survey of English Dialects , grammar and vocabulary differed across the country, but a process of lexical attrition has led most of this variation to disappear. Nonetheless this attrition has mostly affected dialectal variation in grammar and vocabulary, and in fact, only 3 percent of the English population actually speak RP, the remainder speaking regional accents and dialects with varying degrees of RP influence. An example of this is H-dropping , which was historically a feature of lower-class London English, particularly Cockney, and can now be heard in the local accents of most parts of England—yet it remains largely absent in broadcasting and among the upper crust of British society.

Within each of these regions several local subdialects exist: Within the Northern region, there is a division between the Yorkshire dialects, and the Geordie dialect spoken in Northumbria around Newcastle, and the Lancashire dialects with local urban dialects in Liverpool Scouse and Manchester Mancunian.

Having been the centre of Danish occupation during the Viking Invasions, Northern English dialects, particularly the Yorkshire dialect, retain Norse features not found in other English varieties. Since the 15th century, southeastern England varieties centred around London, which has been the centre from which dialectal innovations have spread to other dialects. In London, the Cockney dialect was traditionally used by the lower classes, and it was long a socially stigmatised variety.

The spread of Cockney features across the south-east led the media to talk of Estuary English as a new dialect, but the notion was criticised by many linguists on the grounds that London had influencing neighbouring regions throughout history. Scots is today considered a separate language from English, but it has its origins in early Northern Middle English [] and developed and changed during its history with influence from other sources, particularly Scots Gaelic and Old Norse.

Scots itself has a number of regional dialects. And in addition to Scots, Scottish English are the varieties of Standard English spoken in Scotland, most varieties are Northern English accents, with some influence from Scots. In Ireland , various forms of English have been spoken since the Norman invasions of the 11th century. In County Wexford , in the area surrounding Dublin , two extinct dialects known as Forth and Bargy and Fingallian developed as offshoots from Early Middle English, and were spoken until the 19th century. Modern Irish English , however, has its roots in English colonisation in the 17th century.

Today Irish English is divided into Ulster English , the Northern Ireland dialect with strong influence from Scots, as well as various dialects of the Republic of Ireland. Like Scottish and most North American accents, almost all Irish accents preserve the rhoticity which has been lost in the dialects influenced by RP. North American English is fairly homogeneous compared to British English.

Today, American accent variation is often increasing at the regional level and decreasing at the very local level, [] though most Americans still speak within a phonological continuum of similar accents, [] known collectively as General American GA , with differences hardly noticed even among Americans themselves such as Midland and Western American English. In Southern American English , the most populous American "accent group" outside of GA, [] rhoticity now strongly prevails, replacing the region's historical non-rhotic prestige.

Today spoken primarily by working- and middle-class African Americans , African-American Vernacular English AAVE is also largely non-rhotic and likely originated among enslaved Africans and African Americans influenced primarily by the non-rhotic, non-standard older Southern dialects. A minority of linguists, [] contrarily, propose that AAVE mostly traces back to African languages spoken by the slaves who had to develop a pidgin or Creole English to communicate with slaves of other ethnic and linguistic origins.

AAVE is commonly stigmatised in North America as a form of "broken" or "uneducated" English, as are white Southern accents, but linguists today recognise both as fully developed varieties of English with their own norms shared by a large speech community. Since , English has been spoken in Oceania , and Australian English has developed as a first language of the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Australian continent, its standard accent being General Australian. The English of neighbouring New Zealand has to a lesser degree become an influential standard variety of the language.

Australian and New Zealand English stand out for their innovative vowels: Australian English also has a contrast between long and short vowels, not found in most other varieties. Australian English grammar aligns closely to British and American English; like American English, collective plural subjects take on a singular verb as in the government is rather than are.

English is spoken widely in South Africa and is an official or co-official language in several countries. In South Africa , English has been spoken since , co-existing with Afrikaans and various African languages such as the Khoe and Bantu languages. SAE is a non-rhotic variety, which tends to follow RP as a norm. It is alone among non-rhotic varieties in lacking intrusive r. There are different L2 varieties that differ based on the native language of the speakers. Nigerian English is a dialect of English spoken in Nigeria.

Additionally, some new words and collocations have emerged from the language, which come from the need to express concepts specific to the culture of the nation e. Over million population of Nigerians speak English. They suggest it takes 12 to 25 ponytails to produce a wig. In the event is while in the form of a ponytail, secure it with a band every two inches and so the hair does not come loose. In addition they do not recognize dreadlocks. Action 4 should the hair be sold? Location braid in a bag or dried ponytail. Spot that in a padded bag. Spot hair in a sealed bag.

Hair has to be braided or closely bound in ponytails. It must be attached with rubberbands, one at each end as well as in the middle. Printable instructions Locks of Love: Wigs for Children in hair gift guidelines: Locks Southern Blvd. Some salons provides you with discounted charges in the event you contribute your hair.

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