La primera reina tolteca (Spanish Edition)

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What is now the Mexican state of Chiapas was divided roughly equally between the non-Maya Zoque in the western half and Maya in the eastern half; this distribution continued up to the time of the Spanish conquest. However, in the late 15th century the Kaqchikel rebelled against their former K'iche' allies and founded a new kingdom to the southeast with Iximche as its capital. In the decades before the Spanish invasion the Kaqchikel kingdom had been steadily eroding the kingdom of the K'iche'.

La primera reina tolteca by Sandra Sabanero

Soconusco was an important communication route between the central Mexican highlands and Central America. It had been subjugated by the Aztec Triple Alliance at the end of the 15th century, under the emperor Ahuizotl , [44] and paid tribute in cacao. Private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with the Spanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule. The newly conquered territory became New Spain , headed by a viceroy who answered to the king of Spain via the Council of the Indies.

The conquistadors were all volunteers, the majority of whom did not receive a fixed salary but instead a portion of the spoils of victory, in the form of precious metals , land grants and provision of native labour. However, the Spanish exploited this fragmentation by taking advantage of pre-existing rivalries between polities.

Spanish weaponry and tactics differed greatly from that of the indigenous peoples. This included the Spanish use of crossbows , firearms including muskets , arquebuses and cannon , [60] war dogs and war horses.

The mounted conquistador was highly manoeuvrable and this allowed groups of combatants to quickly displace themselves across the battlefield. The horse itself was not passive, and could buffet the enemy combatant. The crossbows and early firearms were unwieldy and deteriorated rapidly in the field, often becoming unusable after a few weeks of campaigning due to the effects of the climate. The 16th-century Spanish conquistadors were armed with one- and two-handed broadswords, lances, pikes, rapiers, halberds, crossbows, matchlocks and light artillery.

In Guatemala the Spanish routinely fielded indigenous allies; at first these were Nahua brought from the recently conquered Mexico, later they also included Maya. It is estimated that for every Spaniard on the field of battle, there were at least 10 native auxiliaries. Sometimes there were as many as 30 indigenous warriors for every Spaniard, and the participation of these Mesoamerican allies was decisive. Maya armies were highly disciplined, and warriors participated in regular training exercises and drills; every able-bodied adult male was available for military service.

Maya states did not maintain standing armies; warriors were mustered by local officials who reported back to appointed warleaders. There were also units of full-time mercenaries who followed permanent leaders. They wore padded cotton armour to protect themselves. Maya warriors wore body armour in the form of quilted cotton that had been soaked in salt water to toughen it; the resulting armour compared favourably to the steel armour worn by the Spanish.

Epidemics accidentally introduced by the Spanish included smallpox , measles and influenza. These diseases, together with typhus and yellow fever , had a major impact on Maya populations. A single soldier arriving in Mexico in was carrying smallpox and initiated the devastating plagues that swept through the native populations of the Americas.

Maya written histories suggest that smallpox was rapidly transmitted throughout the Maya area the same year that it arrived in central Mexico. Among the most deadly diseases were the aforementioned smallpox, influenza, measles and a number of pulmonary diseases, including tuberculosis.

By the late 16th century, malaria had arrived in the region, and yellow fever was first reported in the midth century. He sent his brother Bartholomew to scout the island. As Bartholomew explored, a large trading canoe approached.

Spanish conquest of the Maya

The ship foundered upon a reef somewhere off Jamaica. Captain Vildivia was sacrificed with four of his companions, and their flesh was served at a feast. Aguilar and Guerrero were held prisoner and fattened for killing , together with five or six of their shipmates. Aguilar and Guerrero managed to escape their captors and fled to a neighbouring lord, who took them prisoner and kept them as slaves.

Guerrero became completely Mayanised and by Guerrero had achieved the rank of nacom , a war leader who served against Nachan Can's enemies. The ships could not put in close to the shore due to the coastal shallows. However, they could see a Maya city some two leagues inland. The following morning, ten large canoes rowed out to meet the Spanish ships, and over thirty Maya boarded the vessels and mixed freely with the Spaniards.

As the Spanish party advanced along a path towards the city, they were ambushed by Maya warriors. Thirteen Spaniards were injured by arrows in the first assault, but the conquistadors regrouped and repulsed the Maya attack. They advanced to a small plaza upon the outskirts of the city. The expedition captured two Mayas to be used as interpreters and retreated to the ships.

The Spanish discovered that the Maya arrowheads were fashioned from flint and tended to shatter on impact, causing infected wounds and a slow death; two of the wounded Spaniards died from the arrow-wounds inflicted in the ambush. Over the next fifteen days the fleet followed the coastline west, and then south. A large contingent put ashore to fill their water casks. They were approached by about fifty finely dressed and unarmed Indians while the water was being loaded into the boats; they questioned the Spaniards as to their purpose by means of signs. The Spanish party then accepted an invitation to enter the city.

The Spanish party retreated in defensive formation to the safety of the ships. Night fell by the time the water casks had been filled and the attempts at communication concluded. By sunrise the Spanish had been surrounded by a sizeable army. The Spanish regrouped and forced passage to the shore, where their discipline collapsed and a frantic scramble for the boats ensued, leaving the Spanish vulnerable to the pursuing Maya warriors who waded into the sea behind them.

By the end of the battle, the Spanish had lost over fifty men, more than half their number, [] and five more men died from their wounds in the following days. They were now far from help and low on supplies; too many men had been lost and injured to sail all three ships back to Cuba, so one was abandoned. The fleet then sailed south along the east coast of the peninsula. The Spanish spotted three large Maya cities along the coast, but Grijalva did not land at any of these and turned back north to loop around the north of the peninsula and sail down the west coast.

Messages were sent with a few Maya who had been too slow to escape but the Maya remained hidden in the forest; the Spanish boarded their ships and continued along the coast. From the natives they received a few gold trinkets and news of the riches of the Aztec Empire to the west. One Spaniard was killed and fifty were wounded in the ensuing battle, including Grijalva.

Grijalva put into Havana five months after he had left. A new expedition was organised, with a fleet of eleven ships carrying men and some horses. The fleet made its first landfall at Cozumel; Maya temples were cast down and a Christian cross was put up on one of them. The defeated Chontal Maya lords offered gold, food, clothing and a group of young women in tribute to the victors. Pedro de Alvarado passed through Soconusco with a sizeable force in , en route to conquer Guatemala.

They reported that neighbouring groups in Guatemala were attacking them because of their friendly outlook towards the Spanish. The expedition became lost in the hills north of Lake Izabal and came close to starvation before they captured a Maya boy who led them to safety.

No Spanish military expeditions were launched against the Maya of Belize, although both Dominican and Franciscan friars penetrated the region in attempts at evangelising the natives. The only Spanish settlement in the territory was established by Alonso d'Avila in and lasted less than two years. This region formed a part of the K'iche' kingdom , and a K'iche' army tried unsuccessfully to prevent the Spanish from crossing the river.

Once across, the conquistadors ransacked nearby settlements. The Spanish and their allies stormed the town and set up camp in the marketplace. On 12 February Alvarado's Mexican allies were ambushed in the pass and driven back by K'iche' warriors but a Spanish cavalry charge scattered the K'iche' and the army crossed to the city of Xelaju modern Quetzaltenango to find it deserted.

Alvarado was deeply suspicious of K'iche' intentions but accepted the offer and marched to Q'umarkaj with his army. The first Easter mass held in Guatemala was celebrated in the new church, during which high-ranking natives were baptised. In March Pedro de Alvarado camped outside Q'umarkaj. In response to a furious K'iche' counterattack, Alvarado had the captured K'iche' lords burnt to death, and then proceeded to burn the entire city. Alvarado wrote that they sent warriors to assist him, although the Kaqchikel recorded that they sent only This included the Mam inhabitants of the area now within the modern department of San Marcos.

James of the Knights of Guatemala". After two Kaqchikel messengers sent by Pedro de Alvarado were killed by the Tz'utujil, [] the conquistadors and their Kaqchikel allies marched against the Tz'utujil. The Spanish and their allies arrived at the lakeshore after a day's march, and Alvarado rode ahead with 30 cavalry along the lake shore until he engaged a hostile Tz'utujil force, which was broken by the Spanish charge.

The surviving Tz'utujil fled into the lake and swam to safety. The Spanish could not pursue them because canoes sent by the Kaqchikels had not yet arrived. This battle took place on 18 April. The following day the Spanish entered Tecpan Atitlan, the Tz'utujil capital, but found it deserted. The Tz'utujil leaders responded to Alvarado's messengers by surrendering to Pedro de Alvarado and swearing loyalty to Spain, at which point Alvarado considered them pacified and returned to Iximche; [] three days later, the lords of the Tz'utujil arrived there to pledge their loyalty and offer tribute to the conquistadors.

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He took this as the submission of the inhabitants, but was met by armed resistance when he tried to enter the province. The conquistadors were met with a barrage of missiles and boiling water, and found the nearby town defended by a formidable 1. The Spanish stormed the wall, to find that the inhabitants had withdrawn under cover of torrential rain that had interrupted the battle. Again the inhabitants offered armed resistance before abandoning their town to the Spanish.

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Conquistador Diego Godoy wrote that the Indians killed or captured at Huixtan numbered no more than The Spanish, by now disappointed with the scarce pickings, decided to retreat to Coatzacoalcos in May Pedro de Alvarado rapidly began to demand gold in tribute from the Kaqchikels, souring the friendship between the two peoples, [] and the Kaqchikel people abandoned their city and fled to the forests and hills on 28 August Ten days later the Spanish declared war on the Kaqchikel.

Annals of the Kaqchikels []. A day later they were joined by many nobles and their families and many more people; they then surrendered at the new Spanish capital at Ciudad Vieja. At the time of the conquest, the main Mam population was situated in Xinabahul modern Huehuetenango city , but Zaculeu's fortifications led to its use as a refuge during the conquest. The Mam army advanced across the plain in battle formation and was met by a Spanish cavalry charge that threw them into disarray, with the infantry mopping up those Mam that survived the cavalry.

The Mam leader Canil Acab was killed and the surviving warriors fled to the hills.

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The Spanish army rested for a few days, then continued onwards to Huehuetenango only to find it deserted. Kayb'il B'alam had received news of the Spanish advance and had withdrawn to his fortress at Zaculeu, [] with some 6, warriors gathered from the surrounding area. Mam warriors initially held firm against the Spanish infantry but fell back before repeated cavalry charges. Kayb'il B'alam, seeing that outright victory on an open battlefield was impossible, withdrew his army back within the safety of the walls. As Alvarado dug in and laid siege to the fortress, an army of approximately 8, Mam warriors descended on Zaculeu from the Cuchumatanes mountains to the north, drawn from towns allied with the city; [] the relief army was annihilated by the Spanish cavalry.

Kayb'il B'alam finally surrendered the city to the Spanish in the middle of October Alvarado himself launched the second assault with Tlaxcalan allies but was also beaten back. The Poqomam then received reinforcements, and the two armies clashed on open ground outside of the city. The battle was chaotic and lasted for most of the day, but was finally decided by the Spanish cavalry. This tactic allowed the Spanish to break through the pass and storm the entrance of the city. The Poqomam warriors fell back in disorder in a chaotic retreat through the city.

Those who managed to retreat down the neighbouring valley were ambushed by Spanish cavalry who had been posted to block the exit from the cave, the survivors were captured and brought back to the city. The siege had lasted more than a month, and because of the defensive strength of the city, Alvarado ordered it to be burned and moved the inhabitants to the new colonial village of Mixco. There are no direct sources describing the conquest of the Chajoma by the Spanish but it appears to have been a drawn-out campaign rather than a rapid victory.

Chiquimula de la Sierra "Chiquimula in the Highlands" was inhabited by Ch'orti' Maya at the time of the conquest.

La primera reina tolteca

The indigenous population soon rebelled against excessive Spanish demands, but the rebellion was quickly put down in April Montejo was received in there in peace by the lord Aj Naum Pat. The ships only stopped briefly before making for the mainland, making landfall somewhere near Xelha in the Maya province of Ekab. Montejo garrisoned Xelha with 40 soldiers and posted 20 more at nearby Pole.

The provisions were soon exhausted and additional food was requisitioned from the local Maya villagers; this too was soon consumed. Many local Maya fled into the forest and Spanish raiding parties scoured the surrounding area for food, finding little. At Belma, Montejo gathered the leaders of the nearby Maya towns and instructed them to swear loyalty to the Spanish Crown. After this, Montejo led his men to Conil, a town in Ekab, where the Spanish party halted for two months. In the spring of , Montejo left Conil for the city of Chauaca , which was abandoned by its Maya inhabitants under cover of darkness.

The following morning the inhabitants attacked the Spanish party but were defeated. The Spanish then continued to Ake, where they engaged in a major battle, which left more than 1, Maya dead. After this Spanish victory, the neighbouring Maya leaders all surrendered. Montejo's party then continued to Sisia and Loche before heading back to Xelha. The support ship eventually arrived from Santo Domingo, and Montejo used it to sail south along the coast, while he sent his second-in-command Alonso d'Avila via land. Montejo discovered the thriving port city of Chaktumal modern Chetumal.

The fledgling Spanish colony was moved to nearby Xamanha, [] modern Playa del Carmen , which Montejo considered to be a better port. Pedro de Portocarrero , a young nobleman, led the next expedition into Chiapas after Alvarado, again from Guatemala. One of the scarce mentions of Portocarrero's campaign suggests that there was some indigenous resistance but its exact form and extent is unknown.

By , Spanish colonial power had been established in the Chiapas Highlands, and encomienda rights were being issued to individual conquistadores. In , captain Diego Mazariegos crossed into Chiapas via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec with artilley and raw recruits recently arrived from Spain. After this, Mazariegos and his companions proceeded to Chiapan and set up a temporary camp nearby, that they named Villa Real.

Mazariegos had arrived with a mandate to establish a new colonial province of Chiapa in the Chiapas Highlands. He initially met with resistance from the veteran conquistadores who had already established themselves in the region. The two conquistadors eventually met up in Huixtan.

Although Mazariegos had managed to establish his new provincial capital without armed conflict, excessive Spanish demands for labour and supplies soon provoked the locals into rebellion. In August , Mazariegos replaced the existing encomenderos with his friends and allies; the natives, seeing the Spanish isolated and witnessing the hostility between the original and newly arrived settlers, took this opportunity to rebel and refused to supply their new masters.

Villa Real was now surrounded by hostile territory, and any Spanish help was too far away to be of value. The colonists quickly ran short of food and responded by taking up arms and riding against the Indians in search of food and slaves. The Indians abandoned their towns and hid their women and children in caves. The rebellious populations concentrated themselves on easily defended mountaintops.

At Quetzaltepeque a lengthy battle was fought between the Tzeltal Maya and the Spanish, resulting in the deaths of a number of Spanish. The battle lasted several days, and the Spanish were supported by indigenous warriors from central Mexico. The battle eventually resulted in a Spanish victory, but the rest of the province of Chiapa remained rebellious. After the battle of Quetzaltepeque, Villa Real was still short on food and Mazariegos was ill; he retreated to Copanaguastla against the protests of the town council, which was left to defend the fledgling colony.

He occupied his post for a year, during which time he attempted to reestablish Spanish control over the province, especially the northern and eastern regions, but was unable to make much headway. In , Pedro de Alvarado finally took up the post of governor of Chiapa. Once again, the encomiendas of Chiapa were transferred to new owners. The Spanish launched an expedition against Puyumatlan; it was not successful in terms of conquest, but enabled the Spanish to seize more slaves to trade for weapons and horses. The newly acquired supplies would then be used in further expeditions to conquer and pacify still-independent regions, leading to a cycle of slave raids, trade for supplies, followed by further conquests and slave raids.

They also managed to acquire special privileges from the Crown in order to stabilise the colony, such as an edict that specified that the governor of Chiapa must govern in person and not through a delegated representative. This situation would not stabilise until the s, when the dire shortage of Spanish women in the colony was alleviated by an influx of new colonists. In , the New Laws were issued with the aim of protecting the indigenous peoples of the Spanish colonies from their overexploitation by the encomenderos.

Their arrival meant that the colonists were no longer free to treat the natives as they saw fit without the risk of intervention by the religious authorities. Colonial opposition to the Dominicans was such that the Dominicans were forced to flee Ciudad Real in fear of their lives. James the Moor-slayer as a readily identifiable image of Spanish military superiority. Montejo was appointed alcalde mayor a local colonial governor of Tabasco in , and pacified that province with the aid of his son , also named Francisco de Montejo.

In Montejo moved his base of operations to Campeche. D'Avila continued southeast to Chetumal where he founded the Spanish town of Villa Real just within the borders of modern Belize. At Campeche, a strong Maya force attacked the city, but was repulsed by the Spanish. After this battle, the younger Francisco de Montejo was despatched to the northern Cupul province, where the lord Naabon Cupul reluctantly allowed him to found the Spanish town of Ciudad Real at Chichen Itza.

Montejo parcelled out the province amongst his soldiers as encomiendas. After six months of Spanish rule, Naabon Cupul was killed during a failed attempt to kill Montejo the Younger. The death of their lord only served to inflame Cupul anger and, in mid , they laid siege to the small Spanish garrison at Chichen Itza. Montejo the Younger abandoned Ciudad Real by night, and he and his men fled west, where the Chel , Pech and Xiu provinces remained obedient to Spanish rule. Montejo the Younger was received in friendship by the lord of the Chel province.

The Montejos founded a new Spanish town at Dzilam, although the Spanish suffered hardships there. He was accompanied by the friendly Chel lord Namux Chel. Around this time the news began to arrive of Francisco Pizarro 's conquests in Peru and the rich plunder there. Towards the end of or the beginning of the next year, Montejo the Elder and his son retreated to Veracruz, taking their remaining soldiers with them. Montejo the Elder became embroiled in colonial infighting over the right to rule Honduras, a claim that put him in conflict with Pedro de Alvarado, captain general of Guatemala, who also claimed Honduras as part of his jurisdiction.

Alvarado was ultimately to prove successful. In Montejo the Elder's absence, first in central Mexico, and then in Honduras, Montejo the Younger acted as lieutenant governor and captain general in Tabasco. His initial efforts were proving successful when Captain Lorenzo de Godoy arrived in Champoton at the command of soldiers despatched there by Montejo the Younger.

Godoy and Testera were soon in conflict and the friar was forced to abandon Champoton and return to central Mexico. In the ten years after the fall of Zaculeu various Spanish expeditions crossed into the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and engaged in the gradual and complex conquest of the Chuj and Q'anjob'al. By the time the Spanish physically arrived in the region this had collapsed to , because of the effects of the Old World diseases that had run ahead of them. After Zaculeu fell to the Spanish, the Ixil and Uspantek Maya were sufficiently isolated to evade immediate Spanish attention. Gaspar Arias , magistrate of Guatemala, penetrated the eastern Cuchumatanes with sixty Spanish infantry and three hundred allied indigenous warriors.

Olmos launched a disastrous full-scale frontal assault on the city. As soon as the Spanish attacked, they were ambushed from the rear by over two thousand Uspantek warriors. The Spanish forces were routed with heavy losses; many of their indigenous allies were slain, and many more were captured alive by the Uspantek warriors only to be sacrificed.

A year later Francisco de Castellanos set out from Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala by now relocated to Ciudad Vieja on another expedition, leading eight corporals, thirty-two cavalry, forty Spanish infantry and several hundred allied indigenous warriors. The expedition recruited further forces on the march north to the Cuchumatanes. On the steep southern slopes they clashed with between four and five thousand Ixil warriors; a lengthy battle followed during which the Spanish cavalry outflanked the Ixil army and forced them to retreat to their mountaintop fortress at Nebaj.

The Spanish besieged the city, and their indigenous allies penetrated the stronghold and set it on fire. This allowed the Spanish to break the defences. Although heavily outnumbered, the Spanish cavalry and firearms decided the battle. The surrounding towns also surrendered, and December marked the end of the military stage of the conquest of the Cuchumatanes. Further Q'anjob'al reducciones were in place by Q'anjob'al resistance was largely passive, based on withdrawal to the inaccessible mountains and forests. In the Mercedarian Order built the first church in Santa Eulalia.

This name was Hispanicised to Lacandon. The ecclesiastical authorities were so worried by this threat to their peaceful efforts at evangelisation that they eventually supported military intervention. This successful resistance against Spanish attempts at domination served to attract ever more Indians fleeing colonial rule. Two Spanish missionaries also remained in the town.

The soldiers commanded by Barrios Leal conquered a number of Ch'ol communities. Mercederian friar Diego de Rivas was based at Dolores del Lakandon, and he and his fellow Mercederians baptised several hundred Lakandon Ch'ols in the following months and established contacts with neighbouring Ch'ol communities. By the area immediately north of the new colony of Guatemala was being referred to as the Tierra de Guerra "Land of War".

Whenever the Spanish located a centre of population in this region, the inhabitants were moved and concentrated in a new colonial settlement near the edge of the jungle where the Spanish could more easily control them. This strategy resulted in the gradual depopulation of the forest, simultaneously converting it into a wilderness refuge for those fleeing Spanish domination, both for individual refugees and for entire communities. In this way they congregated a group of Christian Indians in the location of what is now the town of Rabinal.

The Dominicans established themselves in Xocolo on the shore of Lake Izabal in the midth century.

Xocolo became infamous among the Dominican missionaries for the practice of witchcraft by its inhabitants.

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