Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology (Endocrine Development)

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Grisel Trejo Keli L. Internet addiction in Hong Kong adolescents: Liying Dong Martin Merz Most Cited Articles The most cited articles published since , extracted from Scopus. Hormones are chemicals which affect the actions of different organ systems in the body. Examples include thyroid hormone , growth hormone , and insulin. The endocrine system involves a number of feedback mechanisms, so that often one hormone such as thyroid stimulating hormone will control the action or release of another secondary hormone such as thyroid hormone.

If there is too much of the secondary hormone, it may provide negative feedback to the primary hormone, maintaining homeostasis.

Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology

In the original definition by Bayliss and Starling see below , they specified that, to be classified as a hormone, a chemical must be produced by an organ, be released in small amounts into the blood, and be transported by the blood to a distant organ to exert its specific function. This definition holds for most "classical" hormones, but there are also paracrine mechanisms chemical communication between cells within a tissue or organ , autocrine signals a chemical that acts on the same cell , and intracrine signals a chemical that acts within the same cell.

Griffin and Ojeda identify three different classes of hormones based on their chemical composition: Amines, such as norepinephrine , epinephrine , and dopamine catecholamines , are derived from single amino acids , in this case tyrosine. Peptide hormones and protein hormones consist of three in the case of thyrotropin-releasing hormone to more than in the case of follicle-stimulating hormone amino acid residues and can have a molecular mass as large as 30, grams per mole. All hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide hormones, as are leptin from adipocytes, ghrelin from the stomach, and insulin from the pancreas.

Steroid hormones are converted from their parent compound, cholesterol. Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind: Some forms of vitamin D , such as calcitriol , are steroid-like and bind to homologous receptors, but lack the characteristic fused ring structure of true steroids.

Although every organ system secretes and responds to hormones including the brain , lungs , heart , intestine , skin , and the kidney , the clinical specialty of endocrinology focuses primarily on the endocrine organs , meaning the organs whose primary function is hormone secretion. These organs include the pituitary , thyroid , adrenals , ovaries , testes , and pancreas.

An endocrinologist is a physician who specializes in treating disorders of the endocrine system, such as diabetes , hyperthyroidism , and many others see list of diseases. The medical specialty of endocrinology involves the diagnostic evaluation of a wide variety of symptoms and variations and the long-term management of disorders of deficiency or excess of one or more hormones. The diagnosis and treatment of endocrine diseases are guided by laboratory tests to a greater extent than for most specialties.

This might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites. An endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of clinical chemistry and biochemistry to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations. A second important aspect of the practice of endocrinology is distinguishing human variation from disease.

Atypical patterns of physical development and abnormal test results must be assessed as indicative of disease or not. Diagnostic imaging of endocrine organs may reveal incidental findings called incidentalomas , which may or may not represent disease. Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are chronic diseases that need lifelong care. Some of the most common endocrine diseases include diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and the metabolic syndrome.

Care of diabetes, obesity and other chronic diseases necessitates understanding the patient at the personal and social level as well as the molecular, and the physician—patient relationship can be an important therapeutic process.

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Apart from treating patients, many endocrinologists are involved in clinical science and medical research , teaching , and hospital management. Endocrinologists are specialists of internal medicine or pediatrics.

Reproductive endocrinologists deal primarily with problems of fertility and menstrual function—often training first in obstetrics. Most qualify as an internist , pediatrician , or gynecologist for a few years before specializing, depending on the local training system. Further formal training to subspecialize in adult, pediatric , or reproductive endocrinology is called a fellowship.

Endocrinology

Typical training for a North American endocrinologist involves 4 years of college, 4 years of medical school, 3 years of residency, and 2 years of fellowship. Endocrinology also involves study of the diseases of the endocrine system.

These diseases may relate to too little or too much secretion of a hormone, too little or too much action of a hormone, or problems with receiving the hormone. Because endocrinology encompasses so many conditions and diseases, there are many organizations that provide education to patients and the public. The Hormone Foundation is the public education affiliate of The Endocrine Society and provides information on all endocrine-related conditions.

Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology

Other educational organizations that focus on one or more endocrine-related conditions include the American Diabetes Association , Human Growth Foundation, American Menopause Foundation, Inc. In the United Kingdom, the Society for Endocrinology [11] and the British Society for Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes [12] are the main professional organisations. The European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology [13] is the largest international professional association dedicated solely to paediatric endocrinology.

There are numerous similar associations around the world. The earliest study of endocrinology began in China. Although most of the relevant tissues and endocrine glands had been identified by early anatomists, a more humoral approach to understanding biological function and disease was favoured by the ancient Greek and Roman thinkers such as Aristotle , Hippocrates , Lucretius , Celsus , and Galen , according to Freeman et al.

In , Arnold Berthold noted that castrated cockerels did not develop combs and wattles or exhibit overtly male behaviour. In fact, one of two other things could have been true: It was not proven that the testes released a substance that engenders male characteristics until it was shown that the extract of testes could replace their function in castrated animals.

Pure, crystalline testosterone was isolated in The Graves' disease was named after Irish doctor Robert James Graves , [18] who described a case of goiter with exophthalmos in The German Karl Adolph von Basedow also independently reported the same constellation of symptoms in , while earlier reports of the disease were also published by the Italians Giuseppe Flajani and Antonio Giuseppe Testa, in and respectively, [19] and by the English physician Caleb Hillier Parry a friend of Edward Jenner in the late 18th century.

In William Bayliss and Ernest Starling performed an experiment in which they observed that acid instilled into the duodenum caused the pancreas to begin secretion, even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two. They named this substance " secretin " and coined the term hormone for chemicals that act in this way. Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski made the observation in that removing the pancreas surgically led to an increase in blood sugar , followed by a coma and eventual death—symptoms of diabetes mellitus.

In , Banting and Best realized that homogenizing the pancreas and injecting the derived extract reversed this condition. Neurohormones were first identified by Otto Loewi in The solution was then used to bathe a non-innervated second heart. If the vagus nerve on the first heart was stimulated, negative inotropic beat amplitude and chronotropic beat rate activity were seen in both hearts. This did not occur in either heart if the vagus nerve was not stimulated.

The vagus nerve was adding something to the saline solution. The effect could be blocked using atropine , a known inhibitor to heart vagal nerve stimulation.

Clearly, something was being secreted by the vagus nerve and affecting the heart. The "vagusstuff" as Loewi called it causing the myotropic muscle enhancing effects was later identified to be acetylcholine and norepinephrine. Loewi won the Nobel Prize for his discovery.

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