American Ambassador: Joseph C. Grew and the Development of the United States Diplomatic Tradition

Grew, Joseph C. (Joseph Clark) 1880-1965

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Almost all of Canada's energy exports go to the United States, making it the largest foreign source of U. Canada is consistently among the top sources for U. In the U. There are four major categories of non-military foreign assistance: In addition many private agencies, churches and philanthropies provide aid. Although the United States is the largest donor in absolute dollar terms, it is actually ranked 19 out of 27 countries on the Commitment to Development Index. The CDI ranks the 27 richest donor countries on their policies that affect the developing world.

In the aid component the United States is penalized for low net aid volume as a share of the economy, a large share of tied or partially tied aid, and a large share of aid given to less poor and relatively undemocratic governments. Foreign aid is a highly partisan issue in the United States, with liberals, on average, supporting foreign aid much more than conservatives do. The Guantanamo Bay Naval Base holds what the federal government considers unlawful combatants from these ongoing activities, and has been a controversial issue in foreign relations, domestic politics, and Cuba—United States relations.

The United States itself was the first country to invoke the mutual defense provisions of the alliance, in response to the September 11 attacks. The United States also has mutual military defense treaties with: The United States has responsibility for the defense of the three Compact of Free Association states: Each such state has a unique relationship with the United States, involving various military and economic partnerships and alliances. The United States has undertaken unilateral and multilateral military operations throughout its history see Timeline of United States military operations.

In the post-World War II era, the country has had permanent membership and veto power in the United Nations Security Council , allowing it to undertake any military action without formal Security Council opposition. With vast military expenditures, the United States is known as the sole remaining superpower after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The United Nations Charter requires that military operations be either for self-defense or affirmatively approved by the Security Council.

Though many of their operations have followed these rules, the United States and NATO have been accused of committing crimes against peace in international law, for example in the Yugoslavia and Iraq operations. As of , according to Fox News, the U. According to a report by the Congressional Research Service , the U. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, [50] to use ground and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles , [51] later dubbed "Star Wars".

Though it was never fully developed or deployed, the research and technologies of SDI paved the way for some anti-ballistic missile systems of today. In February , the U. Russia threatened to place short-range nuclear missiles on the Russia's border with NATO if the United States refuses to abandon plans to deploy 10 interceptor missiles and a radar in Poland and the Czech Republic.

On August 14, , the United States and Poland announced a deal to implement the missile defense system in Polish territory , with a tracking system placed in the Czech Republic. Lieber and Daryl G. Press, argue in Foreign Affairs that U. The authors note that Washington continues to eschew nuclear first strike and contend that deploying missile defenses "would be valuable primarily in an offensive context, not a defensive one; as an adjunct to a US First Strike capability, not as a stand-alone shield":.

If the United States launched a nuclear attack against Russia or China , the targeted country would be left with only a tiny surviving arsenal, if any at all. At that point, even a relatively modest or inefficient missile defense system might well be enough to protect against any retaliatory strikes. The DPG declares that the United States should use its power to "prevent the reemergence of a new rival" either on former Soviet territory or elsewhere.

The authors of the Guidance determined that the United States had to "Field a missile defense system as a shield against accidental missile launches or limited missile strikes by 'international outlaws'" and also must "Find ways to integrate the 'new democracies' of the former Soviet bloc into the U.

The National Archive notes that Document 10 of the DPG includes wording about "disarming capabilities to destroy" which is followed by several blacked out words. In United States history, critics have charged that presidents have used democracy to justify military intervention abroad. Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U. Drake argued that the U. Drake argued that this was contradictory because international law defines intervention as "dictatorial interference in the affairs of another state for the purpose of altering the condition of things.

There was disagreement about what constituted democracy ; Drake suggested American leaders sometimes defined democracy in a narrow sense of a nation having elections; Drake suggested a broader understanding was needed. Further, there was disagreement about what constituted a "rebellion"; Drake saw a pattern in which the U. State Department disapproved of any type of rebellion, even so-called "revolutions", and in some instances rebellions against dictatorships.

Mesquita and Downs evaluated 35 U. Pei, based on study of a database on worldwide democracies called Polity , agreed with Mesquita and Downs that U. Professor Joshua Muravchik argued U. Tures examined cases of American intervention from to , using Freedom House data. A plurality of interventions, 96, caused no change in the country's democracy. In 69 instances, the country became less democratic after the intervention.

In the remaining 63 cases, a country became more democratic. Hermann and Kegley found that American military interventions designed to protect or promote democracy increased freedom in those countries. Peceny stated that the United States attempted to export democracy in 33 of its 93 20th-century military interventions.

These trends were also seen in other European countries. United States foreign policy also includes covert actions to topple foreign governments that have been opposed to the United States. Dana Stuster, writing in Foreign Policy , there are seven "confirmed cases" where the U. Stuster states that this list excludes "U. This had the effect of restoring and strengthening the authoritarian monarchical reign of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The coup triggered a decades long civil war which claimed the lives of an estimated , people 42, individual cases have been documented , mostly through massacres against the Maya population perpetrated by the U.

During the massacre of at least , alleged communists in s Indonesia, U. Embassy in Jakarta supplying Indonesian forces with lists of up to 5, names of suspected members of the Communist Party of Indonesia PKI , who were subsequently killed in the massacres. Schneider was shot in the botched attempt and died three days later. According to one peer-reviewed study, the U. Since the s, issues of human rights have become increasingly important in American foreign policy.

As "part of a growing assertiveness by Congress about many aspects of Foreign Policy," [] Human Rights concerns became a battleground between the Legislative and the Executive branches in the formulation of foreign policy. David Forsythe points to three specific, early examples of Congress interjecting its own thoughts on foreign policy:. These measures were repeatedly used by Congress, with varying success, to affect U. Congress argued the opposite, in favor of distancing the United States from oppressive regimes. John Green contends that the United States was an "essential enabler" of "Latin America's political murder habit, bringing out and allowing to flourish some of the region's worst tendencies.

On December 6, , Obama instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries. United States foreign policy is influenced by the efforts of the U. This is especially true in Latin America, a focus for the U. Those efforts date back to at least , when the U. Over a century later, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act requires the President to identify the major drug transit or major illicit drug-producing countries. In September , [] the following countries were identified: Two of these, Burma and Venezuela are countries that the U.

Notably absent from the list were Afghanistan , the People's Republic of China and Vietnam ; Canada was also omitted in spite of evidence that criminal groups there are increasingly involved in the production of MDMA destined for the United States and that large-scale cross-border trafficking of Canadian-grown cannabis continues.

Critics from the left cite episodes that undercut leftist governments or showed support for Israel. Others cite human rights abuses and violations of international law. Critics have charged that the U. Edgar Hoover aggressively recruited more than 1, Nazis, including those responsible for war crimes, to use as spies and informants against the Soviet Union in the Cold War.

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Journalists and human rights organizations have been critical of US-led airstrikes and targeted killings by drones which have in some cases resulted in collateral damage of civilian populations. Regarding support for certain anti-Communist dictatorships during the Cold War , a response is that they were seen as a necessary evil, with the alternatives even worse Communist or fundamentalist dictatorships. David Schmitz says this policy did not serve U. Friendly tyrants resisted necessary reforms and destroyed the political center though not in South Korea , while the ' realist ' policy of coddling dictators brought a backlash among foreign populations with long memories.

Many democracies have voluntary military ties with United States. Those nations with military alliances with the U. This may give a false impression that the U. Research on the democratic peace theory has generally found that democracies, including the United States, have not made war on one another. There have been U. Weart argues that part of the explanation was the perception, correct or not, that these states were turning into Communist dictatorships. Also important was the role of rarely transparent United States government agencies, who sometimes mislead or did not fully implement the decisions of elected civilian leaders.

History of United States foreign policy

Empirical studies see democide have found that democracies, including the United States, have killed much fewer civilians than dictatorships. Studies have found that The New York Times coverage of worldwide human rights violations predominantly focuses on the human rights violations in nations where there is clear U. Niall Ferguson argues that the U. He writes that it is generally agreed that Guatemala was the worst of the US-backed regimes during the Cold War. Intelligence Oversight Board writes that military aid was cut for long periods because of such violations, that the U.

According to the U. State Department, "Democracy is the one national interest that helps to secure all the others. Democratically governed nations are more likely to secure the peace, deter aggression, expand open markets, promote economic development, protect American citizens, combat international terrorism and crime, uphold human and worker rights, avoid humanitarian crises and refugee flows, improve the global environment, and protect human health. President Bill Clinton , "Ultimately, the best strategy to ensure our security and to build a durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere.

Democracies don't attack each other. State Department, democracy is also good for business. Countries that embrace political reforms are also more likely to pursue economic reforms that improve the productivity of businesses. Accordingly, since the mids, under President Ronald Reagan , there has been an increase in levels of foreign direct investment going to emerging market democracies relative to countries that have not undertaken political reforms. The United States officially maintains that it supports democracy and human rights through several tools [] Examples of these tools are as follows:.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Constitution of the United States Law Taxation.

Presidential elections Midterm elections Off-year elections. List of United States treaties. List of treaties unsigned or unratified by the United States. Energy policy of the United States and Petroleum politics. NATO member states, including their colonies and overseas possessions. National missile defense and Strategic Defense Initiative. American democracy promotion in the Middle East and North Africa. Criticism of American foreign policy.

Constitutional and international law [ edit ] Advice and consent List of United States treaties Missouri v. Retrieved April 20, Retrieved 18 February Archived from the original on April 15, Herring, From Colony to Superpower: Kennan," Diplomacy and Statecraft , Nov , Vol. The Republican Party and U. Archived from the original on August 26, All are dependent on the free flow of goods around the world and all require global stability in order to ensure continued economic growth and the prosperity it engenders. Tribe, "Taking Text and Structure Seriously: The League of Nations: Its Life and Times, — Retrieved October 14, Western Hemisphere Economic Integration.

Archived from the original PDF on August 12, Archived from the original on US foreign assistance" PDF. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 14 October The New York Times. Accessed March 10, Might Negotiate on Missile Defense , washingtonpost. Avoiding a Crisis in Europe". Nuclear Primacy" Keir A. Archived from the original on July 5, Also see this page.

Journal of Peace Research. Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations. Johns Hopkins University Press. Democracy at the Point of Bayonets. Pennsylvania State University Press. Use of Military Intervention to Promote Democracy: The United States and Latin America. The Johns Hopkins University Press. The United States in Central America.

American Enterprise Institute Press. Archived from the original on January 17, Retrieved April 12, Shifter, Michael; Peceny, Mark Winter Latin American Politics and Society. The 7 Governments the U. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division. A Modern History of Iran". Retrieved November 23, Ghosts of Guatemala's Past. Retrieved 5 July Retrieved November 21, The Geography of Genocide. University Press of America.

State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A History of the Indonesian Massacres, Retrieved October 19, Authoritarian Development and U. Washington did everything in its power to encourage and facilitate the army-led massacre of alleged PKI members, and U. Here's what that means for today. Retrieved December 4, What Did the US Know? The New York Review of Books. Retrieved November 6, According to the journalist Kathy Kadane, "As many as 5, names were furnished over a period of months to the Army there, and the Americans later checked off the names of those who had been killed or captured.

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